Iguazú National Park, Argentina

The Iguazu National Park of South America contains one of the wonders of the natural world, the Iguazu waterfalls or Cataratas del Iguazú in Spanish. Located on Argentina's northern border with Brazil, the Iguazu Falls attract nearly 2 million visitors each year making it one of the most popular sites in the whole of South America. People travel from all over the globe to experience the power of one of the world's largest waterfalls. The Iguazu National Park is also home to an array of exotic flora and fauna. Since 1984 the park has benefited from its status as one of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites.

The name Iguazu originates from the local Guarani and Tupi tribes' words for “big” and “water”. According to local legend, the falls were created when an enraged god slashed the river into two levels to thwart the escape attempts of a beautiful woman that had planned to marry who left him for another man. The waterfalls split the upper and lower levels of the vast Iguazu River, which forms a significant part of the Parana River, South America's second largest river after the Amazon. Overall, the Iguazu Falls are made up of an impressive 275 waterfalls with drops that vary from 60-82 meters at the highest point. The edge of the upper plateau, from which the water drops, stretches for 1.7 miles and is broken up by numerous islands that form the separate falls.

One of the most impressive features of the Iguazu Falls is a narrow chasm known as the “Devil's Throat”. This 150 meter wide and 700 meter long U-shaped enclave is the best place to truly appreciate the raw power of Iguazu Falls as water thunders down from all sides. Over half of the water that passes over the Iguazu Falls does so through the “Devil's Throat”. This dramatic site is what gave rise to such an evocative name as is Devil's Throat.

In terms of average annual water flow, Iguazu River is ranked after North America's Niagara Falls. However, when Iguazu River is at its highest, Iguazu Falls becomes the largest waterfall on the planet with a maximum recorded water flow of 452,000 cubic feet per second. With a superior height than that of Niagara Falls, and less restricted views than that of Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe, some argue that Iguazu Falls is the most impressive set of waterfalls in the world. In fact, the New Seven Wonders of the World Foundation selected Iguazu Falls in Argentina as one of the New 7 Wonders of Nature.

These famous falls are located in the Iguazu National Park, one of thirty Argentine national parks. The first Argentine national parks were founded as far back as 1903 in Patagonia's Lake District. The Iguazu Park has maintained national park status since 1934, providing protection to local flora and fauna by prohibiting hunting and logging in addition to putting tight restrictions on development in the area. The Iguazu National Park currently spans 212 square miles on the Argentina side alone, continuing on the Brazilian side of the Iguazu River to create an even larger protected area for wildlife and plants.

Animals that can be found in the Iguazu Park are typical to those found in any South American rainforest. The most impressive species include jaguars, tapirs, anteaters and the elusive ocelot which is considered to be a type of dwarf leopard. Many of these animals are on endangered species lists and the Iguazu National Park provides an integral role in protecting them from the threats of poaching and deforestation.

Despite the massive tourist appeal of Iguazu Park, authorities are keen to reduce the impact humans have upon the natural surroundings when they visit. Access to Iguazu Falls is restricted and a special “Rainforest Ecological Train” is used to carry passengers from the park entrance, through the jungle and to the falls. Alternatively the falls can be reached via a series of forest trails of varying grades of difficulty. The park charges an entrance fee of around USD $25 to ensure that both Iguazu National Park and Iguazu Falls, as well as the surrounding land and wildlife, are preserved for future generations.

Source: http://www.donquijote.org/culture/argentina/places/parks/iguazu-national-park

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Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, Madagascar

Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve comprises karstic landscapes and limestone uplands cut into impressive 'tsingy' peaks and a 'forest' of limestone needles, the spectacular canyon of the Manambolo river, rolling hills and high peaks. The undisturbed forests, lakes and mangrove swamps are the habitat for rare and endangered lemurs and birds.

Outstanding Universal Value

 Brief synthesis

The Tsingy de Bemaraha Integral Nature Reserve is located in the District of Antsalova and in the region of the central west part of Madagascar. It is part of the Melaky region, in the autonomous province of Mahajanga, and localized between 44°34’ to 44°57’ longitude east and 18°12’ to 19°09’ latitude south. Its total area is 152,000 ha.

The Reserve offers a wide variety of geomorphological structures. It is a veritable cathedral of limestone and offers one of the most spectacular natural landscapes of the Grand Island and even of the world. The western part of the plateau presents a very dissected or ‘lapiezée’ relief, most of which is covered by a dense, dry and deciduous forest. In its eastern part, the forest is interspersed by savannas.

The Tsingy of Bemaraha is considered a centre for endemism by its wealth in faunal and floral species. 

Criterion (vii): The Tsingy de Bemaraha Integral Nature Reserve represents rare or eminently remarkable geological phenomena and of exceptional beauty. It presents impressive geological elements including karstic scenery with a highly dissected limestone massif, crossed by a deep river gorge  which is the spectacular expression of a stage of evolution of the earth in the form of a « forest of sharp stones » with high limestone pinnacles rising up to 100 metres, forming veritable cathedrals, offering a grandiose, spectacular natural landscape. Further, « the Tsingy » of the limestone plateau forms an unusual feature of outstanding beauty, unique in the world, universally recognized by the effect created by the shades of forest green on metallic reflections of the grey karst “bristles”.

Criterion (x): The Tsingy de Bemaraha Integral Nature Reserve contains communities of rare and/or threatened animal species. In addition to a forestry cover of more than 85,000 ha and excellent examples of principal types of ecosystem from rainforest habitats to very dry ones, the property contains a very rich biological diversity on a world level, due to its faunal and floral species, their rarity and containment presenting spectacular adaption and insular characteristics, enabling the conservation in situ of endemism and biological diversity. The same applies to the habitats of very rare species all threatened with extinction, which are either endemic or subordinate: 11 species of Lemur; 6 bird species; 2 local endemic amphibian species; 17 endemic reptile species including the famous miniscule chameleon, Brookesia perarmata; as well as a species of rodent, Nesomys lambertoni, that only exists in the Reserve. Linked to the diversity of habitats, systematic research will without doubt shortly enable the addition of new species to this list. Furthermore, certain surrounding lakes, also dependent on the hydrological system of the property, have been listed as Ramsar sites.

Integrity

Since its national listing in 1927, the protection of the Reserve is partially assured due to the very difficult access formed by the karst barriers and vegetation formations still intact. Currently, the dense, dry forest covers an area of 80,000 ha, that is a little more than half of the Reserve. It still constitutes a suitable habitat for the conservation of animal and plant species. Another part of the property is composed of karst system (limestone), forming an exceptional landscape. The savanicole formation occupies nearly all the other half of the Reserve (47.6%). This entire zone, that contains botanical characteristic elements of the landscape, provides favourable natural conditions for livestock breeding. Consequently, each year, anthropogenic fires cover some areas of the savanna and affect a part of the borders and the forests. Human and cattle disruption to the integrity must be part of the elements to monitor in the Reserve.

Protection and management requirements

The Reserve has the status of « Integral Natural Reserve » representing the strongest protection at the national level, since 1927. Until 1990, apart from the presence of a Chief of the Reserve, staff from the Ministry of Water and Forests assures the protection in situ, the property has not had any organized management structure. However, the Government, UNESCO and WWF were willing to allocate funds to improve management and conservation. To this end, a document which is at the same time a strategic management plan for the Reserve, was prepared to constitute an overall planning reference. Presently, the Reserve has a management and conservation plan, including bush fire control, and the implementation of this plan was already undertaken during this decade.

Since 1991, an institution mandated by the Malagasy State assures the management and conservation of this site, the « National Association for the Management of Protected Areas », that has become the « Madagascar National Parks ». Moreover, a change in the status from the Integral Nature Reserve to National Park is envisaged to redefine physically and legally the boundaries as well as the eventual promotion of ecotourism, in permanent consultation with the neighbouring communities and the State.

In the border areas of the property, the management of wild fires in grazing lands with the communities remains one of the major management concerns especially in the northern part. At the same time, developing tourism impacts shall be monitored to use as a socio-economic integration tool which does not negatively affect the integrity of the property in the mid- or long-term, whist being a stimulant for local development. The financial income resulting from the development of ecotourism is beginning to have its positive impacts on conservation activities.

Long Description

The integral nature reserve of Tsingy of Bemaraha lies 60-80 km inland from the west coast in the northern sector of the Antsingy region of the Bemaraha Plateau, north of the Manambolo River Gorge. The additional forests and lakes nominated include all the remaining native forest, mangrove and lakes between the west coast and the Bemaraha Reserve, lying between the Sohanina and Manambolo rivers.

Much of the reserve integral to Tsingy de Bemaraha comprises limestone karst, delimited to the east by abrupt cliffs which rise some 300-400 m above the Hanambolo River valley and extend several tens of kilometres from north to south. The western slopes rise more gently, and the whole western region of the reserve forms a plateau with rounded hillocks which slope away to the west. To the north undulating hills alternate with limestone extrusions, whereas in the south extensive pinnacle formations make access extremely restricted. The Hanambolo River Gorge is on the southern edge of the reserve. Both seasonal and permanent rivers flow on the plateau (draining to the west), and numerous permanent springs arise at the base of the Tsingy on both sides.

Vegetation is characteristic of the calcareous karst regions of western Madagascar, with dense, dry, deciduous forest, and extensive anthropogenic savannahs.

The fauna of the region has not been studied in any detail. The Tsingy is the only known location for chameleon, and the only western dry forest site known for Madagascar grey-throated rail (only previously known from north-western and eastern Madagascar). The reserve is also the only protected area where the endemic nesomyine rodent is known to occur and there is also an unconfirmed report of aye-aye just outside the reserve. Other notable species include goshawk, which may be threatened, and lemur, all of which are (or may be) threatened.

Historical Description

December 1927, and is now protected under Decree No. 66-242 of 1 June 1966. The ancient cemeteries within the Manambolo Gorge, the gorge itself, and the "foreet rochers" (which includes the reserve), are all designated "natural monuments and sites" under a decree of 25 August 1937, all three being listed by an 'arrete' 11 February 1939. However, this latte r designation does not imply any degree of management or protection.

Source: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/494

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Cueva de los Cristales/Cave of Crystals, Mexico

Cave of the Crystals or Giant Crystal Cave (Spanish: Cueva de los Cristales) is a cave connected to the Naica Mine 300 metres (980 ft) below the surface in Naica, Chihuahua, Mexico.

The main chamber contains giant selenite crystals (gypsum, CaSO₄·2 H₂O), some of the largest natural crystals ever found. The cave's largest crystal found to date is 12 m (39 ft) in length, 4 m (13 ft) in diameter and 55 tons in weight. The cave is extremely hot, with air temperatures reaching up to 58 °C (136 °F) with 90 to 99 percent humidity. The cave is relatively unexplored due to these factors. Without proper protection, people can only endure approximately ten minutes of exposure at a time.

A group of scientists known as the Naica Project have been heavily involved in researching these caverns.

Formation of the crystals

Naica lies on an ancient fault above an underground magma chamber below the cave. The magma heated the ground water which was saturated with sulfide ions (S^2–). Cool oxygenated surface water contacted the mineral saturated heated water, but the two did not mix due to the difference in their densities. The oxygen slowly diffused into the heated water and oxidized the sulfides (S^2–) into sulfates (SO₄^2–). The hydrated sulfate gypsum crystallized at an extremely slow rate of over the course of at least 500,000 years forming the enormous crystals found today. The key to this process is the slow diffusion of oxygen from the cool, low density surface water into the hot, high density ground water.

Discovery

In 1910 miners discovered a cavern beneath the Naica mine workings, the Cave of Swords (Spanish: Cueva de las Espadas). It is located at a depth of 120 m, above the Cave of Crystals, and contains spectacular, smaller (1 m long) crystals. It is speculated that at this level, transition temperatures may have fallen much more rapidly, leading to an end in the growth of the crystals

Giant Crystal Cave was discovered in 2000 by miners excavating a new tunnel for the Industrias Peñoles mining company located in Naica, Mexico, while drilling through the Naica fault, which they were concerned would flood the mine. The mining complex in Naica contains substantial deposits of silver, zinc and lead.

The Cave of Crystals is a horseshoe-shaped cavity in limestone. Its floor is covered with perfectly faceted crystalline blocks. Huge crystal beams jut out from both the blocks and the floor. The caves are accessible today because the mining company's pumping operations keep them clear of water. If the pumping were stopped, the caves would again be submerged in water. The crystals deteriorate in air, so the Naica Project is attempting to visually document the crystals before they deteriorate further.

Two other smaller caverns were also discovered in 2000, Queen’s Eye Cave and Candles Cave, and a further chamber was found in a drilling project in 2009. The new cave, named Ice Palace, is 150 m deep and is not flooded, but its crystal formations are much smaller, with small 'cauliflower' formations and fine, threadlike crystals. All of the caves discovered currently are: Cave of Crystals, Queen's Eye, Candles Cave, Ice Palace and Cave of Swords.

Exploration and Scientific Studies

A scientific team coordinated by Paolo Forti, specialist of cave minerals and crystallographer at the University of Bologna (Italy) explored the cave in detail in 2006. To survive and to be able to work in the extreme temperature and humid conditions which prevent prolonged incursion in the crystal chamber, they developed their own refrigerated suits and cold breathing systems (respectively dubbed Tolomea suit and Sinusit respirator). Special caving overalls were fitted with a mattress of refrigerating tubes placed all over the body and connected to a backpack weighing about 20 kg (44 lbs) containing a reservoir filled with cold water and ice. The cooling provided by melting ice was sufficient to provide about half an hour of autonomy.

Beside mineralogical and crystallographic studies, biogeochemical and microbial characterization of the gypsum giant crystals were also performed. Stein-Erik Lauritzen (University of Bergen, Norway) performed uranium-thorium dating to determine the maximum age of the giant crystals, about 500,000 years.

Penelope Boston (NewMexico Institute of Mining and Technology), speleologist and geomicrobiologist specialist of extremophile organisms realized sterile sampling of gypsum drillcores by making small boreholes inside large crystals under aseptic conditions. The aim was to detect the possible presence of ancient bacteria encapsulated inside fluid and solid inclusions present the calcium sulfate matrix from its formation.

Solid inclusions mainly consist of magnesium and iron oxy-hydroxide but no organic matter could be found associated with the solid hydroxides. No DNA from ancient bacteria could be extracted from the solid inclusions and amplified by PCR.

Microbial studies on fluid inclusions are foreseen to attempt to evidence the presence of ancient micro-organisms in the original fluid solution in which the crystals developed.

Other researches also cover the fields of palynology (pollen study), geochemistry, hydrogeology and the physical conditions prevailing in the Cave of Crystals.

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